MILITARIZED CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIAN OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
MILITARIZED CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIAN OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR
ABSTRACT
The presence of Indian armed forces and military infrastructure in ecologically sensitive areas of Indian Occupied Jammu & Kashmir has led to severe environmental degradation. This militarization has resulted in habitat loss, deforestation, pollution, and ecological imbalances. The marginalized communities are disproportionately affected due to their vulnerability and lack of resources. The impact of climate change further exacerbates environmental issues, including glacier melting and altered water flow patterns. The expansion of military facilities and activities has significantly contributed to the ecological challenges faced by the region. This article examines the detrimental effects of militarization on the environment and its consequences for both ecosystems and local communities of Indian occupied Jammu and Kashmir.
Keywords: Militarization, Environment, Ecological Degradation, Indian Occupied Jammu & Kashmir, Deforestation, Pollution, Climate Change, Glacier.
1. INTRODUCTION
The process of militarization has far-reaching ecological repercussions, profoundly impacting various ecosystems, intricate biodiversity, and the invaluable array of natural resources. The unconstrained utilization of weaponry and establishment of military infrastructure inflict irreversible harm upon delicate and intricate landscapes. The consequential loss of habitats, widespread deforestation, and escalating pollution further exacerbate the vulnerabilities inherent in the environmental fabric. In this intricate nexus, human actions and prevailing socio economic disparities wield a pivotal influence in determining the extent of the devastation posed by natural disasters. Tragically, marginalized and underserved communities bear an uneven burden of these adverse outcomes, primarily due to their heightened vulnerability and constrained access to essential resources. The stunning landscapes of Indian Occupied Jammu & Kashmir (IoK) mask a disconcerting reality: the enduring military presence within ecologically vulnerable regions. The establishment of permanent installations and militarized infrastructure by Indian Armed forces in delicate ecosystems has triggered expropriation, illicit encroachment, and the pervasive weaponization of natural areas, encompassing wetlands, forests, glaciers, mountains, hills, paddy fields, streambeds, permafrost areas, and water bodies.
Consequently, severe ecological deterioration, including deforestation, soil erosion, and pollution, has taken hold. This degradation has yielded reduced biodiversity, heightened water scarcity, compromised flood absorption capacity, and escalated flood hazards during intense rainfall. Climate change is causing problems in two main ways in the region. First, when it gets hot, the glacier melts too quickly, leading to too much water from the melting glacier during the rainy season, sometimes causing floods. But in the dry season, there’s not enough water from the glacier. Second, because the temperatures are rising, the glacier is shrin147king faster than it’s getting new snow, making it smaller overall. As if the challenge of retreating glaciers wasn’t enough, there’s another factor in play: the ongoing presence of the Indian army in the area. The construction of large military facilities and the release of chemicals from military activities have harmed the glacier. The glacier’s rapid decline is more because of military activities than just higher temperatures. The situation in Indian-Occupied Jammu & Kashmir is marked by significant ecological challenges stemming from the militarized presence in delicate environments. This military strategy extends beyond defined borders, seeping into urban and rural zones within the region.
2. MILITARY PRESENCE IN ECOLOGICALLY FRAGILE AREA
In 1990, India heightened its military presence in the region as a component of its ‘counter insurgency’ (COIN) strategy. This strategy employs a ‘mixed approach’ that involves substantial military deployment, exemplified by actions like ‘Operation Parakrama’ during the unofficial war with Pakistan in Kargil. The Indian COIN strategy in Kashmir has been officially defined as “integrating all available national means—political, economic, and military.”i The deployment of Indian armed forces, driven by tactics like ‘force saturation’ and ‘area domination,’ stretches its reach beyond borders. A comprehensive counter-insurgency grid involves around 700,000 armed personnel, encompassing regular forces of the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force, as well as paramilitary units like the Central Reserve Police Force, Border Security Force, and others. Even auxiliary forces such as the Territorial Army, state police, and community embedded state-armed operatives play roles.
This robust military presence has led to erosion and encroachment, as exemplified by more than one third of the Indian Army’s total strength and one third of the Border armed Force’s force deployed in Jammu and Kashmir. This situation profoundly impacts both the environment and the lives of the local population of IoK. The population of IoK, according to the 2011 census is 125 million (1.25 crores), and there’s an estimated presence of around 700,000 armed military and paramilitary forces. This translates to approximately seven armed personnel for every square kilometer of land in Indian Administered Jammu & Kashmir, which covers a total area of 101,387 square kilometers.ii
i Mir Fatimah Kanth and Shrimoyee Nandini Ghosh, OCCUPATIONAL HAZARD, Indian administered Jammu and Kashmir: JKCSS, 2015. ii Mridu Rai, “Kashmir: From Princely State to Insurgency,” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History, April 26, 2018, Accessed on Aug 29, 2023,
The deployment of such a substantial number of armed personnel has led to a land usage pattern that affects every facet of Kashmir’s diverse environment. Glaciers, forests, mountains, hills, paddy fields, stream beds, and lakes – all have faced the negative environmental outcomes due to military activities, encampments, and permanent military bases. The military occupation’s impact isn’t confined to rural areas alone; it extends to densely populated urban areas, distorting their growth. while formulating the Srinagar Master Plan, around 11% of the city’s land, including both Srinagar and its semi-urban periphery, is being used by the army and paramilitary forces.iii Many land portions remain ‘illegally occupied,’ having never undergone formal demarcation, leasing, requisition, mutation, or acquisition under the Jammu & Kashmir Land Acquisition Act or other laws. Those who own these lands, whether the State of Jammu & Kashmir or private farmers, orchard owners, nomadic communities, or dwellers around forests and lakes, receive no rent or compensation for these lands that were taken without proper authorization. The significant areas physically occupied by the armed forces had no records at all, as observed in places like Srinagar, Batamaloo etc.
One striking aspect of the military presence in the Kashmir valley is the occupation of civic infrastructure and government buildings. This continues despite the 2007-2008 demilitarization policy recommendation. Even though the Jammu & Kashmir government has attempted demilitarization, progress has been limited. Public spaces like sports stadiums, university campuses, hospitals, administrative offices, and more remain occupied by armed forces, impacting the entire region. A survey revealed that armed forces also occupied private and public buildings in villages, including health centers and university buildings.
In 2020, Srinagar city alone had 191 schools, 10 cinema halls, 37 hotels, 14 hospitals, 28 industrial units, and 285 government buildings under military or paramilitary occupation. Despite promises of demilitarization, these buildings remain under military control, leading to serious consequences. Even after troops leave, the spaces often continue to deteriorate due to neglect and misuse, as seen in the case of the Flood Control Department’s Mechanical Division at Khwajabagh. The Border Security Armed occupied the local office of the Flood Control Department in Narbal, Budgam district. Vital civic centers like hotels, cinema halls, and government offices are meant to provide essential services during emergencies but are rendered dysfunctional due to military occupation. The harmful impact of long-term military occupation on civic infrastructure is well documented globally. Srinagar’s roads, sanitation, waterways, and waste management facilities have also suffered from neglect and mismanagement.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.184
3. ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION’S RIPPLE EFFECTS
The reasons behind climate change in IoK can be attributed to two main sources. Firstly, there’s the overall global warming caused by the buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Secondly, there’s warming specific to the region due to militarization. The emissions of black carbon from sources like India’s diesel vehicles, brick kilns, cookstoves, and coal-based power plants contribute significantly to this warming. The combination of political ecology and militarized governance has rendered Indian Occupied Jammu & Kashmir exceedingly susceptible to the ramifications of climate change, encompassing severe weather events, landslides, and ecological disparities. The detrimental fallout of militarization on the environment has engendered a self-perpetuating cycle of ecological fragility and vulnerability to disasters in the region. A predominant challenge in Indian Occupied Jammu & Kashmir lies in deficient governance and the lack of prioritization accorded to environmental conservation vis-à-vis military agendas. The emphasis on militarized governance has marginalized ecological considerations, sustaining an unsustainable equilibrium between military operations and the well-being of the environment.
3.1 Amarnath Yatra
It’s important to note that the Amarnath Yatra, known as “Operation Shiva,” has raised concerns as a manifestation of militarized tourism, characterized by extensive troop deployments, movements, and the establishment of military camps along the route, all within a state of heightened surveillance and encirclement. This militarized approach appears to have the objective of assimilating Kashmir into a Hindu cartography. Undoubtedly, the surge in tourist numbers has resulted in the production of non-biodegradable waste, potentially posing a more significant ecological threat than mere physical land appropriation.iv The area’s capacity to accommodate visitors stands at a mere 4,300 individuals per day.
However, official records indicate that during the initial 25 days of this year’s pilgrimage, an average of 12,353 pilgrims have been visiting the cave daily.v Interestingly, for over a decade, the number of attendees at the Amarnath Cave has consistently surpassed the area’s carrying capacity during the first half of the pilgrimage. This situation leads to the accumulation of a substantial volume of waste, often discarded beside the trail. This not only poses a threat to the ecosystem but also impacts the formation of the ice stalagmite
3.2 Deforestation
The ecological impact of the Amarnath Yatra pilgrimage and the surge in tourism promoted by India in Kashmir have placed significant stress on the region’s environment. The deforestation emerges as a prominent concern. The Indian state itself plays a role in this deforestation, felling apple trees to harm the Kashmiri economy and cutting down numerous other trees to support developmental projects, showcasing the integration of Kashmir into India’s broader development initiatives. This deforestation not only contributes to global warming but also poses risks to local Kashmiris. The diminished forest cover leads to the encroachment of wildlife into inhabited areas, resulting in wildlife attacks on residents. Simultaneously, the Indian government’s lack of decisive action against the poaching of the indigenous Kashmiri deer Hangul has led to a sharp decline in their numbers. In this heavily militarized region, questions arise about the availability of weapons capable of swiftly killing creatures like the Hangul.
iii Azhar Qadri, “Haphazard Growth in Srinagar Blamed on ‘Faulty’ Master Plans”, The Tribune India, June 23, 2019, Accessed on Aug 29, 23, https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/j-k/haphazard-growth-in-srinagar-blamed-on-faulty-master-plans-791612.
3.3 Land-Mines
The toll of this environmentally catastrophic militarization is not limited to the natural world alone. India’s substantial accumulation of land mines along the Line of Control has inflicted substantial human and livestock casualties, resulting in both loss of lives and limbs. The reckless dispersal of land mines in forests and fields continues to haunt local communities, burdening them with immeasurable sorrow due to the tragic loss of lives and means of sustenance. Furthermore, the presence of unexploded shells has tragically led to fatalities even after military operations, while the contamination of soil and water sources renders them unusable, causing severe harm to the livelihoods and communities dependent on these vital resources.
Over the years, 110 people, including children, have lost their lives and 150 others have been injured in IoK due to unexploded shells lying in the meadow. In 2017, a court ordered compensation for the victims and highlighted the need to address the environmental damage in the area.vi However, the government has not shown significant action, and many victims are still awaiting compensation payments.
3.4 Naval Bases
The presence of the Indian military, including Marine Commandos stationed at the Naval Base within Wular Lake, has exacerbated the challenges faced by the lake’s communities. The ecologically sustainable livelihoods such as fishing, gathering fodder, and cultivating water chestnuts have dwindled due to ecological degradation and restricted movement imposed by the naval occupation. The commercial tree plantations have also encroached upon the lake’s bed, albeit the largest one being managed by the Social Forestry Department rather than local individuals. The persistent military presence has taken a toll on Kashmir’s lakes, harming the well-being of lake dwelling communities and imperiling the delicate lake ecosystems through pollution, habitat loss, and biodiversity decline. The impact of constant military presence and patrolling, including the establishment of Naval Bases, around Kashmir’s lakes has been severe on lake-dwelling communities. Their traditional lifestyles and economic activities have been disrupted, leading to increasing impoverishment. The fragile lake ecosystems are at risk due to water pollution, habitat destruction, and loss of biodiversity resulting from military activities.
3.5 Coal-Based Power Plants
In the Indo-Gangetic plains, there are many coal based power plants that make a lot of soot. This dirty stuff affects the health of people living within about 10 miles from the plants, and even farther. The air quality gets worse for hundreds of miles, depending on the weather. In the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plains, before the rainy season, there’s a lot of dust in the air. This mixes with the dirty stuff from the power plants and makes the place warmer. This is important to know when we see the temperature going up. The extensive militarization of Jammu and Kashmir, particularly in its flood-secure highlands and productive orchards, has significantly influenced the landscape’s usage patterns. This militarization has resulted in substantial livelihood losses, significant displacements, and the expansion of urban settlements into lower-lying flood-prone regions.
4. IMPACT OF MILITARIZATION ON GLACIERS
Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, and China rely on water from the high mountains, like the Himalayas. This shows how much the Himalaya-Karakoram Hindukush mountain ranges matter for South Asia. The Himalayas are sometimes called the “Third Pole” because they’re alike the Arctic and Antarctic regions, as described by Circle of Blue.vii Within the geostrategic domain of the Kashmiri Himalayan region, the enumeration of 147 glaciers assumes a salient significance, emblematic of a narrative that intricately interlaces ecological vulnerabilities with the geopolitical landscape. The Kolahoi glacier, colloquially known as the ‘Goddess of Light’, encapsulates the dire consequences of unrelenting global warming.
Its visible shrinkage from 13.57 to 10.69 square kilometers, marked by an astonishing annual recession rate of 73.26 meters, underscores the multifaceted nexus of militarized climate change. Smaller glaciers, being more sensitive to climatic variations owing to their comparatively lower altitudinal thresholds and diminished accumulation zones, among these, the Thajiwas, Drang-Drujng, Machoi, and Shafat glaciers bear witness to accelerated thaw rates, emblematic of broader environmental perturbations. However, the implications transcend the traditional bilateral framework of India and Pakistan, a fact exemplified by the iconic Siachen Glacier – a phenomenon of profound geopolitical and environmental importance located within the territory of Indian Occupied Jammu & Kashmir.
Renowned U.S. expert Neal Kemkar, in an eye opening piece for the Stanford Environmental Law Journal, coined the glacier’s transformation as the “world’s highest garbage dump.” In a comprehensive analysis featured in the Stanford Environmental Law Journal, Kemkar highlighted that the situation is further underscored by estimates from the International Union for Conservation of Nature, indicating that a staggering amount of over 900 kilograms (equivalent to 2,000 pounds) of human waste is deposited into crevices on the Indian side alone, on a daily basis.viii This observation is particularly significant as the absence of natural biodegradation mechanisms means that these materials remain permanent pollutants, fusing with the glacier and releasing toxic substances such as cobalt, cadmium, and chromium into the ice.
The convergence of these contaminants with the flowing waters sets off a chain reaction of consequences that reverberates widely. This intricate interplay affects not only the sources of drinking water but also the irrigation systems that stand as lifelines, indispensable for the survival people on both the Indian and Pakistani fronts. This transformation is evocative of the accumulation of over 10,000 tons of pernicious waste and pollutants, emblematic of the collateral consequences arising from militarization activities. The complex interplay of an extensive military infrastructure has given rise to a hazardous blending of toxic remnants and waste resulting from ammunition use. This ongoing interaction continues to imprint an environmentally harmful legacy upon the previously untouched canvas of the glacier.
The Siachen glacier stands at the crossroads of the world’s only nuclear trijunction, where the claims of three nuclear-armed powers— China, India, and Pakistan—intersect. The fragile equilibrium in this volatile region is underlined by both geopolitical and environmental concerns. The environmental experts have sounded a warning: the heavy military presence on this glacier is not only a harbinger of conflict but also an accelerant of ecological catastrophe. Over the past four decades, more than 30 percent of the Siachen Glacier has melted, a staggering transformation that defies the usual patterns seen in nearby Karakoram glaciers on the Pakistani side. The ongoing military occupation has intensified this meltdown.
In 1984, India’s Operation Meghdoot utilized helicopters to strategically position soldiers on the Siachen glacier,ix marking the beginning of a protracted battle that continues to this day. After thirteen rounds of bilateral negotiations spanning three decades, a resolution continues to elude the grasp of diplomacy. This situation has evolved into a concept referred to by experts as “banal geopolitics,” signifying a somewhat eerie acceptance that this enduring state of conflict has become a routine and unremarkable aspect of everyday life. Yet, this should not encourage us to become complacent.
Instances of intentional chemical blasting and ice cutting to establish military camps have been documented. The routine movements of troops, vehicular activities, and helicopter flights further contribute to the glacier’s instability and degradation. The discarded debris left by Indian troops on the glacier’s surface reveals a concerning scene—crashed helicopters, worn gun barrels, shrapnel from artillery fire, fuel containers, charred shelters, communication cables, para-dropping boards, canisters, gunnysacks, and even human remains. This distressing accumulation of non biodegradable materials significantly amplifies the greenhouse effect, leading to higher temperatures and accelerating the melting of snow and glacial ice.
The formation of precarious glacial lakes as a consequence heightens the looming threat of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF). The adverse consequences of the glacier’s deterioration extend beyond its immediate vicinity. The increased susceptibility of Indian Occupied Jammu & Kashmir to floods, landslides, and avalanches directly stems from this environmental decline. The disposal of waste from the glacier’s ridge into lower crevices has been directly associated with the tragic 2012 Saltoro avalanche, which claimed the lives of 140 individuals.x This military presence has caused erosion and the deposit of rocks and minerals into the water that comes from the Siachen Glacier. This has made the water quality worse for people in Indian occupied Kashmir and Pakistan. The drop-in water quality has negative effects on the health of both city and rural populations in Pakistan. This worsens the already scarce availability of clean drinking water for daily use.
vii Simon Marsden, “From the High North to the Roof of the World: Arctic Precedents for Third Pole Governance,” The Yearbook of Polar Law 8, no. 1 (February 8, 2017): 56–75, Accessed on July 30, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1163/22116427_008010006.
viii Tribune, “Siachen Tragedy - Day 5: Bad Weather Dogs Avalanche Search Efforts,” The Express Tribune April 11, 2012, Accessed on Aug 15, 2023, https:// tribune.com.pk/story/362986/siachen-tragedy-day-5-bad-weather-dogs-pakistan-avalanche-search-efforts.
International humanitarian law unequivocally prohibits the excessive and disproportionate damage to the environment during warfare and armed interventions. Key treaties, including the Hague Regulations, Fourth Geneva Convention, Protocol I, and the 1977 Convention on the Prohibition of Military and Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, underscore the significance of safeguarding the environment amidst conflicts. The precedents set by UN Security Council Resolution 687 (1991) and Article 8(2)(b)(iv) of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (2002)xi declare intentional infliction of severe and widespread environmental damage as war crimes.
Even during extended military presence, the controlling forces are obliged to protect civilian resources, while the affected population retains permanent sovereignty over its natural wealth and resources, as mandated by UN General Assembly Resolution 305 (1972). The enactment of the Biodiversity Act in 2002 aimed to protect our natural resources, echoing the provisions of the 1992 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Nevertheless, the breathtaking wetlands of Wular Lake in Bandipora, which provide habitat to a diverse array of birds and animals, now confront a grave threat.
The Indian government’s disposal of solid and biomedical waste, even on grazing lands used by local cattle and sheep, imperils numerous bird species, including migratory ones. These wetlands play a critical role in flood control, shoreline preservation, and clean water provision. However, the reckless waste disposal in flood-prone zones jeopardizes the intricate ecological equilibrium and the rich tapestry of life they nurture. The urgent action is imperative to halt this detrimental practice and safeguard our environment and its invaluable biodiversity. The ecological fragility of Indian Occupied Jammu & Kashmir demands urgent attention to ensure the well-being of both its environment and inhabitants.
The impact of this militarization extends beyond ecological concerns. It is imperative to address the environmental degradation caused by the military presence and its long-term consequences on the region’s ecological richness and sustainability. Protecting Kashmir’s natural beauty and promoting sustainable development requires awareness and concerted efforts to restore and preserve the delicate ecosystems that have been deeply affected by this troubling reality.
ix Freddie Wilkinson, How a tiny line on a map led to conflict in the Himalaya, National Geographic February 18, 2021, Accesswd on July 29, 2023, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/how-a-tiny-line-on-a-map-led-to-conflict-in-the-himalaya-feature x Mir Fatimah Kanth and Shrimoyee Nandini Ghosh, OCCUPATIONAL HAZARD, Indian administered Jammu and Kashmir: JKCSS, 2015. xi Ibid
• Kanth, Mir Fatimah and Shrimoyee Nandini Ghosh. OCCUPATIONAL HAZARD. Indian administered Jammu and Kashmir: JKCSS, 2015. • Marsden, Simon. “From the High North to the Roof of the World: Arctic Precedents for Third Pole Governance.” The Yearbook of Polar Law 8, no. 1 (February 8, 2017): 56–75. https://doi.org/10.1163/22116427_008010006. • Qadri, Azhar. “Haphazard Growth in Srinagar Blamed on ‘Faulty’ Master Plans”. The Tribune India. June 23, 2019, https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/j-k/haphazard-growth-in srinagar-blamed-on-faulty-master-plans-791612. • Rai, Mridu. “Kashmir: From Princely State to Insurgency.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History, April 26, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.184. • Rajendran, C.P. “Mind the Warning Signs on the Carrying Capacity of the Himalayan Terrain” The Wire Science, July 24, 2022, https://science.thewire.in/environment/himalayan-terrain-carrying-capacity/.• Sidiq, Nusrat. “Environment Paying Price of Conflict in Kashmir.” Anadolu Agency, November 6, 2021. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/environment-paying-price-of-conflict in-kashmir/2413469. • Toufiq Rashid, “Sparring over Amarnath Underlines Differences between Army, State Govt,” Hindustan Times June 24, 2013, https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/sparring-over-amarnath-underlines differences-between-army-state-govt/story-uqNfvy17zyiHtYk6dTHYlI.html• Tribune. “Siachen Tragedy - Day 5: Bad Weather Dogs Avalanche Search Efforts.” The Express Tribune. Tribune, April 11, 2012. https://tribune.com.pk/story/362986/siachen-tragedy-day-5-bad-weather dogs-pakistan-avalanche-search-efforts. • Wilkinson, Freddie. How a tiny line on a map led to conflict in the Himalaya. National Geographic, February 18, 2021, Accessed on July 29, 2023, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/how-a-tiny-line-on-a map-led-to-conflict-in-the-himalaya-feature
Author
Mehr un Nisa Director Of Research KIIR
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